Epidemiologic Surveillance Models for Computational Phytopathology: Factoring Temptation(s) into AI Algorithms of Human Behavioral Goal Contagion

by
Dallas F. Bell, Jr.

I knew the time would pass away; and yet, beside the rose-tree wall, dear God, how seldom, if at all, did I look up and pray!—From “The Deserted Garden” by Elizabeth Barrett Browning

Botany is widely known as a branch of biology that deals with the study of plants, including their structure, properties, and biochemical processes (see attachment of plants listed in the Bible and discussed in the Talmud). This includes plant classification and the study of plant diseases and of interactions with the environment. Plant cytology, often called cell biology, is the science of cell structure and function.

Mankind obviously interacts with plant life through the senses: visual (see the plants), olfactory (smell their pollen etc.), touch (experience their texture), taste (enjoy as food), and even audio. Lupine and other plants make explosions, as a way of spreading their seeds, which can be heard. Trees make popping sounds as they are stressed by drought or are pulling up water.¹

Plants are cultivated and cross-bred to enhance human life. The intersection of pure botany with other disciplines, such as medicine, chemistry, microbiology etc., applies the knowledge and techniques which creates other anthropomorphic academic fields. Ethnobotany is the study of a region's plants and their practical uses through the traditional knowledge of a local culture and people. Economic botanists are scientists who study the interactions between humans and plants.

An improper understanding of plant life is seen with the contrast of Cain and Abel’s sacrifice (c. 3881 B.C.).² Cain famously sacrificed plants to God, which could not provide justification or redemption. Abel offered the living blood of animals for a sacrifice, which was justified and redemptive. On September 17, 2019, students at New York’s Union Theological Seminary held a chapel service to confess to plants. An official on Union’s online account posted the following explanation and photo of the confessional. “Today in chapel, we confessed to plants. Together, we held our grief, joy, regret, hope, guilt and sorrow in prayer; offering them to the beings who sustain us but whose gift we too often fail to honor. What do you confess to the plants in your life?”

Specific wrongs by the confessors to the potted plants were not detailed. It is also unclear if absolution was sought from the plants, as seen in the tradition of Catholic confession. Union’s officials explained it was part of their professor Claudio Carvalhaes’³ class. In their self-assertion of their self-ideal, they are attempting self-replication by writing the following. “In worship, our community confessed the harm we’ve done to plants, speaking directly in repentance.⁴ This is a beautiful ritual… We need to unlearn habits of sin and death.⁵ And part of that work must be building new bridges to the natural world. And that means creating new spiritual and intellectual frameworks by which we understand and relate to the plants and animals with whom we share the planet… Theologies that encourage humans to dominate and master the Earth have played a deplorable role in degrading God’s creation. We must birth new theology, new liturgy to heal and sow, replacing ones that reap and destroy… Because plants aren’t capable of verbal response, does that mean we shouldn’t engage with them?” Other Pagans, such as Celts, Druids, Ligurian, and Iberian cults, worship trees or mistletoe which grows on them. It is proper to tithe the abundance of harvested plants to acknowledge God’s blessings. For example, herbs⁶ or corn.⁷

Plant pathology or phytopathology is the scientific study of diseases in plants caused by pathogens (i.e. infectious organisms) and environmental conditions (i.e. physiological factors). Organisms that cause infectious disease include fungi, bacteria, viruses, phytoplasmas, protozoa, nematodes, and parasitic plants etc. (see the 2016 book Medical Microbiology 8^th Ed. by P. Murray et al.). Professor of plant pathology at the University of Nebraska (Lincoln), Tamra Jackson-Ziems, and Mary Payne Hogan Distinguished Professor of Botany at Old Dominion University, Lytton John Musselman, recommends the extensive library of published books by the American Phytopathological Society (APS Press) for the best resources on this subject.⁸ Professor of plant pathology and plant microbe biology at Cornell University and head of its Milgroom laboratory, Michael Milgroom, recommended his book Population Biology of Plant Pathogens: Genetics, Ecology, and Evolution published by APS.⁹

Epidemiology analyzes the factors affecting the outbreak and spread of infectious diseases. A disease triangle consists of the elements of the host, pathogen, and environment. In addition to these three elements, humans and time add the remaining elements to create a disease tetrahedron. Plant disease epidemics are historically known based on tremendous losses.¹⁰ The factors affecting epidemics are the host’s resistance or susceptibility level, age, and genetics and the pathogen’s amount of innoculum, genetics, and type of reproduction.

Forensic plant pathologists realize the potential for microbes to be used with an intent to harm people, societies, or the environment and are interested in the precise identification of microbes and their origin. Those biosecurity specialists, such as Laurence Madden (Ohio State University [Wooster] professor and former president of the APS) and Jacqueline Fletcher (Oklahoma State University professor and APS fellow), try to improve public understanding of the impact of plant diseases on food production worldwide, and draw realistic attention to the threat of plant pathogens as weapons on regional plant populations.

Having concern for variation of disease from time to time or from place to place, requires the use of mathematical methods. However, having many variables requires the careful reasoning of scientific methods. Contagion is the spread of disease or idea by contact.

Animal contagion¹¹ can be spread to humans, as with brucellosis or spontaneous animal abortions. The bacterial disease can be passed between wildlife, such as bison and domesticated cattle to human contacts. Human health risks can be reduced by controlling the disease in animals.

Human decision-making involves goal contagion. It is described as the automatic adoption of a goal upon perceiving another’s goal-directed behavior.¹² Folie à plusieurs (French for the shared madness of several people¹³) acts as disease transmission from the corrupting influence of those that violate Divine natural laws to those to which they have contact. Identifying corrupting behavioral contact requires a value judgment of what is defined as good and what is defined as evil derived from God’s transcendent moral boundaries, such as do not lie, do not steal, and do not murder, etc. The wicked can not sleep unless they have done evil which causes other people harm.¹⁴ They do not abhor evil. Their words are evil and they devise evil even while in bed.¹⁵

The unrighteous follow evil.¹⁶ The righteous are not to learn the ways of the unrighteous¹⁷ (e.g. idolatry, child murder etc.¹⁸). The circumstance of being exposed to wickedness and having to decide whether to resist following the modeled behavior or follow the behavior is called temptation. Temptation is the testing that can strengthen or corrupt. The unredeemed state is already corrupt and is incapable of being strengthened by God without His redemption. The righteous are not to harden their hearts.¹⁹

All temptation is common to man and God will not allow temptation to exceed one’s ability to escape and bear it.²⁰ The pathology of failing the test, especially against the Holy Spirit, can result in death.²¹ Infinite God can not be tempted and the temptation stimuli of man is not from God²² but is from Satan.²³ Satan is man’s adversary (Greek antidikos for opposition in a courtroom, as with a law suit) and walks around as a roaring lion seeking whom he may devour.²⁴ Leigh Cuen wrote the following lines in her 2019 book of poetry titled Original Sin. “Taste the fruits of truth dangling above. Wisdom won’t ever desert you. Bite my pretty little apple, Love. I promise this time it won’t hurt you.”

The day of the Lord will be both great and terrible.²⁵ During the times of Noah and the repeated algorithm of the end times, the expanding contrast is evident between man’s not resisting violating natural law and descending into pathologies with the few redeemed that, with God’s strength,²⁶ do resist and have increasing strength in prayers. Its simple algorithm contains the same elements for most contingencies.

Human temptation (duration = units of time + accomplishment of Divine destined purpose)

BEGIN
--a desire or need is perceived to exist
--a mental or physical stimuli prompts the decision of acting on that desire or need according to natural law or not
--behavior to resist violating natural law follows²⁷ or violating natural law follows²⁸
END

Studies have examined the hypothesis of goal contagion, which claims that individuals may automatically adopt and pursue a goal that is implied by another person's behavior. Participants were briefly exposed to behavioral information implying a specific goal and were then given the opportunity to act on the goal in a different way and context. The results of one study strongly indicated that male participants had the goal of seeking casual sex activated after observing the actions of others. Goal contagion is stronger towards perceived positive outcomes and weaker towards perceived negative outcomes.

For emerging disease(s), surveillance is conducted for three general objectives: detection, estimation, and targeting. Surveillance is often began as an attempt to detect an invading epidemic before it gets out of control. Many epidemics are not discovered until already at a high prevalence, possibly due to a lack of quantitative understanding of how surveillance efforts and the dynamics of an invading epidemic relate. Echoing U.S. President Trump in 2019,²⁹ J. Rocco Blais, faculty member at the National Intelligence University’s School of Anthony G. Oettinger Science and Technology Intelligence, and Adam M. Jungdahl, faculty member at the National Intelligence University’s Center for Strategic Intelligence Research, expressed their concern for a greater and more appropriate role for artificial intelligence in HUMINT,³⁰ which would include improving related surveillance operations.

For a surveillance program taking a fixed number of samples at regular intervals, the distribution of the prevalence of an epidemic will have been reached on first discovery (discovery-prevalence) and its expectation E(q*). It has been shown that E(q*) = r/(N/∆) where the rate of epidemic growth is divided by the rate of sampling (r is the epidemic growth rate, N is the sample size, and ∆ is the time between sampling rounds).

Epidemiologic surveillance models adopted by computational phytopathology behavior may be utilized.³¹ Models, usually parameterized such as Bayesian or other computationally intensive methods, are simply the abstraction of real phenomenon or process that emphasizes those aspects relevant to the objectives of the user. A mathematical model is known for using a dependent variable and the independent or predictor variable.³²

Humans choose from binary options to either accept the goals of their perceived peers (1) or they choose to reject them (0). Jacob Cohen’s kappa is known for the method of comparing binary data to find instances for reporting epidemics.³³ Degrees of data agreement, as substantial or not, often depend on the objectives of the investigator which brings into question the process’ efficiency.

Once an option is chosen and a beginning is made, its behavioral process moves toward a logical ending—algorithm. An inverse curve model is a relationship in which an increase in one variable corresponds with a decrease in another variable. It indicates that, with all things being equal, as eternal life in Christ (I) increases, material life for self (X) decreases (death).³⁴ The logic formulae would be (I ↑ ∵ X ↓) or (I > ⇔ < X).³⁵

Man’s will ends as infinite God’s will bonds the mathematical/logic reality of the life and death pattern or algorithm. Its time sequence is too complex for chétif man’s finite understanding, which only potentially knows in part.³⁶ But in hindsight the patterns can be observed as with the examples below of plant life, individuals, cities, and nations.

Plant life (wheat; time span = days + accomplishment of Divine destined purpose³⁷)

BEGIN
--a wheat seed is formed
--it falls to the ground and dies
--it brings forth fruit³⁸
END

Theanthropos (Jesus; time span = days + accomplishment of Divine destined purpose³⁹)

BEGIN
--entered the world as a human baby and sinned not
--in perfect innocence was voluntarily murdered
--resurrected to redeem the world’s sin as the only spotless blood sacrifice

END (Note: The Apostle Paul, I. Kant, and F. Dostoevsky observed that without Jesus’ resurrection, life would be intolerable. Given the reality of His resurrection, no righteous suffering or labor is in vain.⁴⁰ Jesus’ example can then be the model for mankind.)

Individual (elect mankind, as with John the Baptist; life span = days + accomplishment of Divine destined purpose⁴¹)

BEGIN
--born with the original sin
--chose to die to self-will and increase God’s will
--in Divine obedience as ambassadors of God’s eternal kingdom⁴² will preach the redemptive gospel of the resurrected Jesus to bear eternal spiritual fruit
END

City (Jerusalem; life span = days + accomplishment of Divine destined purpose)

BEGIN
--was established as God’s city for His holy Temple
--both were destroyed
--the city has been resurrected and waits for the Temple to be rebuilt⁴³
END

Nation (Israel; life span = days + accomplishment of Divine destined purpose)

BEGIN
--was established as God’s nation
--was destroyed
--has been resurrected and awaits the Messiah’s return to govern
END

The city and nation pattern above can be connected by including Masada.⁴⁴

BEGIN
--Israel falls
--Jerusalem falls as the Temple is destroyed (70 A.D.)⁴⁵
--at Masada resistance to being conquered is ended (73-74 A.D.)>⁴⁶
--Israel is resurrected (UN declaration in 1947 and taken in 1948)
--Masada is inaugurated to be excavated (1963)
--Jerusalem is retaken (1967) and awaits the Temple being rebuilt and the Messiah’s coming to rule⁴⁷
END (Note: Israel, Jerusalem, and Masada were resurrected because of Jesus’ resurrection and they now await His return through the gates of Jerusalem to govern.⁴⁸ No nation or leader can ever reverse the resurrection of Jesus, or his nation of Israel, or his capital city of Jerusalem. It would be predictable for such an attempt, especially by the U.S., in defiance of God’s decree to result in the immediate demise of that society.⁴⁹)

Redeemed Mankind⁵⁰ (Jesus said that He did not pray for the whole world but for those [the elect that are redeemed and are to be redeemed] that Father God gave Him.⁵¹)

BEGAN

--worked⁵² and lived with the tree of life in Eden⁵³

--original sin was made and were justly cast out of Eden⁵⁴

--will work⁵⁵ living with the tree of life for eternity⁵⁶

INFINITE END STATE

In 1931, Marc Chagall (Moishe Zakharovich Shagal) was commissioned to paint a series to illustrate the Bible which took 25 years.⁵⁷ He later completed (1958-1960) Dessins Pour La Bible (French, Drawings For The Bible). He tried to capture his love for the Old Testament and New Testament Bible and its immutable account of God’s love for Israel. His work below titled Exodus (1952-1966) alludes to Israel’s receiving the Ten Commandments after their exodus from Egypt (1275 B.C.) and other biblical events, including Jesus the Christ’s crucifixion (Spring of 30 A.D.), up to the return of Israel in 1948. This represents his style of connecting times and spaces.⁵⁸

Man’s goings are of the Lord.⁵⁹ Jesus said if you keep His sayings you shall never see death.⁶⁰ He said you shall know (cog) the truth (T and not truth is F) and the truth shall make you free (X cog T = freedom and thus X cog F ≠ freedom).⁶¹ God’s eternal and immutable decrees⁶² comprehend all events,⁶³ renders them certain,⁶⁴ and allows for the free acts of mankind and thus their responsibility.⁶⁵ A general behavioral contagion algorithm is as follows.

BEGIN

--have a need or desire

--observe perceived positive individual behavior violating natural law to achieve the need or desire

--contemplation is made of the value of the observed behavior

--the behavior is chosen –or-- it is rejected and end

--the behavior is acted on

--other people observe the behavior and chose to begin --or-- end

--congruity is sought with other violations of natural law

--violations of natural law are not satisfying and behaviors are escalated⁶⁶

--the result is death --or-- natural law is accepted and behaviors ended

END

Algorithms for persistence and instances of positive and negative decision-making are developed by quantitative surveillance models of those decisions.⁶⁷ In turn, artificial intelligence creates computational tools for management strategies. It is postulated that they will be advantageous in predicting behavior for individuals, groups, and institutions. They may be used to encourage righteous behavioral compliance with natural law and to predict unrighteous behavior when rejecting natural law.

"…Since death is the true final purpose of our lives, I have, over the past few years, made myself familiar with this true, best friend of humanity, so that its image is no longer frightening to me, instead it is very much calming and comforting to me! And I thank the Lord that he let me have the opportunity to get to know death as the key to true happiness …" (The quote is taken from Wolfgang Mozart’s letter to his father in April, 1787.)⁶⁸

……………..

ATTACHMENT

The most probable plant species by various researchers are listed according to interpretations of commonly used Bible versions. (See the list at Old Dominion University.⁶⁹) The Talmud discusses many biblical plants.⁷⁰

Plant	Reference
Abraham's Bush (Vitex agnus-castus), but perhaps most probably Blackberry (Rubus sanctus)	Exodus 3:2
Acacia, Spirale (Acacia raddiana Savi)	Exodus 25:10
Acacia, Tortilis and/or Acacia, Negev (Acacia gerrardii Bentham subsp. negevensis)	Exodus 37:17
Algum Tree; traditionally thought to denominate Red Sandalwood (Pterocarpus santalinus) and/or White Sandalwood (Santalum album), but a few claim it is Juniper (Juniperus excelsa) (Hebrew, ’al·gum·mim?)	2 Chronicles 2:8; 9:10, 11; 1 Kings 10:11, 12
Almond (Amygdalus communis) (Hebrew, luz (vide Genesis 30:37); sha·qedh? ("keeping awake"))	Genesis 43:11
Almug (Pterocarpus santalinus)	1 Kings 10:11
Agarwood ("Aloe") or aloe wood (Aquilaria malaccensis)	Proverbs 7:17
Aloe (Aloe succotrina)	Proverbs 7:17
Anemone (Anemone coronaria)	Matthew 6:28
Anise (Dill) (Anethum graveolens)	Exodus 30:34
Apple (Malus domestica) (Hebrew, tap·pu?ach; Arabic, tuffah; to change a "p" to "f" in Hebrew a dot is changed; the word indicates that which is distinguished by its fragrance; it derives from the root "na·phach?" denoting "blow, pant, struggle for breath" (see Genesis 2:7; Job 31:39; Jeremiah 15:9); regarding this, M. C. Fisher wrote that "relationship [to na·phach?] seems at first semantically strained, but the ideas of 'breathe' and 'exhale an odor' are related. The by-form puah means both 'blow' (of wind) and 'exhale a pleasant odor, be fragrant.'" (see Proverbs 25:11))
Barley (Hordeum spp.)	Numbers 5:15
Bay (Laurus nobilis) or laurel for wreath/crown (I Peter 5:4)	1 Corinthians 9:25
Bdellium (Commiphora africana) (Hebrew, bedho?lach).	Numbers 11:7
Bean (Vicia faba) Blight or blasting (various fungi)	Ezekiel 4:9 Deut. 28:22 etc.
Box (Buxus sempervirens)	Isaiah 41:19
Boxthorn (Lycium europaeum)	Proverbs 22:5
Bramble (Rubus ulmifolius)	Judges 9:15
Broom, Spiny (Calycotome villosa (Poiret))	Psalm 120:4
Broom, White (Retama raetam (Forssk.) (Webb)	1 Kings 19:4, Psalm 120:4
Broom, Yellow (Spartium junceum)	Psalm 120:4
Bulrush (Typha spp.) or Papyrus (Cyperus papyrus)	Exodus 2:3, Job 40:21 (ABP and NETS)
Burning Bush (Loranthus acaciae) Camphor (Lawsonia inermis) Cane (Arundo donax)	Exodus 3:1, 2 Song of Sol. 1:14 Isaiah 43:24, Jeremiah 6:20
Caper, Desire (Capparis spinosa)	1 Kings 4:33
Carob and Locust (Ceratonia siliqua)	Luke 15:16, Matthew 3:1
Cassia (Cinnamomum iners)	Exodus 30, Psalm 45:8, Job 42:14
Castor Oil Tree ("Jonah's gourd") (Ricinus communis) or citrullus colycinthus Cattail (Typha domingensis)	Jonah 4 Job 40:21-22
Cedar of Lebanon (Cedrus libani Loud.)	1 Kings 5:10, 2 Kings 19:23
Chamomile (several species)	Isaiah 40:6
Chaste Tree (Vitex agnus-castus) (also see Abraham's Bush)	Job 40:21 (ABP and NETS)
Chicory (Cichorium spp.)	Numbers 9:9
Cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum)	Proverbs 7:17
Citron (Citrus medica) Talmud Sukkah 35a for goodly trees	Leviticus 23:40
Cockle (Agrostemma gitago)	Isaiah 28:23
Coriander (Coriandrum sativum)	Exodus 16:31
Cotton (Gossypium herbaceum)	Esther 1:6
Crocus (Crocus sativus)	Song of Sol. 4:13
Crown Daisy (Chrysanthemum sp.)	Isaiah 40:6
Crown of Thorns (Paliurus spina-christi)	Mark 15:15
Cucumber (Cucumis melo)	Numbers 11:5
Cumin (Cumimum cyminum)	Isaiah 28:27
Cypress (Cupressus sempervirens)	Isaiah 44:14
Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera)	Song of Sol. 5:11; 7:7, 8, John 12:13
Dill (see anise)
Dove's Dung (Ornithogalum narbonense) Ebony (Diospyros ebenum)	2 Kings 6:25 Ezekiel 27:15
Fig (Ficus carica) Fir (Abies cilicica)	Joel 1:7 I Kings etc.
Fitches (Black Cumin) (Nigella sativa)	Isaiah 28:23
Flax (Linum usitatissimum)	Proverbs 31:13
Flowers, unidentified	1 Kings 7:26
Frankincense (Boswellia thurifera)	Matthew 2:10, 11
Galbanum (Fennel) (Ferula galbaniflua)	Matthew 23:23
Gall (Papaver somniferum)	Lamentations 3:19
Garlic (Allium sativum)	Numbers 11:5
Grape (Vitis vinifera)	Genesis 9:20: Isaiah 5:1.
Gum resin (Pistacia palaestina) used for incense Gum tragacanth (Astragalus gummifer) spices Hedge of Thorns (Solanum incanum)	Genesis 37:25 Proverbs 15:19
Hemlock (Conium maculatum)	Amos 6:12
Henna (Lawsonia inermis)	Song of Sol. 1:14
Hyssop	Leviticus 14:52
Incense (Boswellia sacra) Iris (then denominated "Lily") (Iris palaestina)	Hosea 4:13 I Kings 7:22
Judas Tree (Cercis siliquastrum)	Matthew 27:3
Juniper (J. excelsa)	1 Kings 3-6; 9:11
Jujube (Ziziphus spina-christi Desf)	Matthew 27:3
Ladanum (Cistus incanus) Balm of Gilead or other species Leek (Allium porrum)	Jeremiah 8:22 etc. Numbers 11:5
Lentil (Lens esculenta)	2 Samuel 17:28
Lily of the field (possibly Anemone coronaria) Lily of the valley (various possibilities) Lily Sand (Pancratium maritimum)	Matthew 6:28 Song. of Sol. 2:1 1 Kings 7:19
Linen (Linum usitatissimum)	Exodus 35:25
Mallow (Atriplex halimus)	Job 30:4
Mandrake (Mandragora autumnalis Bertol.)	Genesis 30:15
Manna (Alhagi camelorum)	Numbers 11:7
Marjorum (Origanum majorana) Mellon (Citrullus lanatus) Millet or sorghum (Sorghum vulgare)	Leviticus 14:4 Numbers 11:5 Ezekiel 4:9 Deut. 28:22
Mildew (various fungi) Mint	Matthew 23:23
Mulberry, Black (Morus nigra)	2 Samuel 5:23-24
Mustard (Brassica nigra)	Matthew 13:31
Myrrh (Commiphora guidotti Engl.)	Song of Sol. 4:6
Myrtle (Myrtus communis)	Isaiah 55:13
Nettle (Acanthus spinosus)	Song of Sol. 4:14
Nigella (Nigella sp.)	Isaiah 28:26
Nuts / Pistachio (Pistacia vera)	Song of Sol. 6:11
Nuts / Walnut (Juglans regia)	Song of Sol. 6:11
Oak (Quercus calliprinos Webb)	Joshua 24:26
Oak (Quercus ithaburensis Decaisne)	Joshua 24:26
Oak (Valonia Oak (Quercus aegilops))	Genesis 35:8
Olive (Olea europaea)	Judges 9:9
Onion (Allium cepa)	Numbers 11:5
Palm (Phoenix dactylifera)	Song of Sol. 7:8
Pine, Aleppo (Pinus halepensis)	Isaiah 44:14
Pine, Stone (Pinus pinea) or Pinus halepensis	Hosea 14:871
Plane (Platanus orientalis)	Ezekiel 31:8 Luke 19:4
Pomegranate (Punica granatum) (Hebrew, rim·mohn?)	Song of Sol. 7:12
Poplar, White (Populus sp.)	Psalm 137:2
Poplar species (Populus sp.)	Isaiah 44:4
Reed (see also Cane) (Phragmites australis)	Ezekiel 40:vv., Job 40:21
Rye ("Rie")	Isaiah 28:25
Rockrose, Pink	Genesis 43:?
Rockrose, White	Genesis 43:11
Rose, Dog ("Wild Rose")	Song of Sol. 2:1
Rue (Ruta graveolens)	Luke 11:42
Rush (Juncus sp.)	Isaiah 9:14
Saffron (Crocus sp.; referenced as the plant or the product consisting of its pollen?)	Song of Sol. 4:14
Sage (Salvia divinorma sp.)	Exodus 3
Sage, Land of Israel (Salvia palaestina Bentham)	Exodus 37:17
Sage, Pungent (Salvia dominica)	Exodus 37:17
Sage, Three Leaved (Salvia fruticosa Miller)	Exodus 37:17
Sage, Jerusalem (Salvia hierosolymitana Boiss)	Exodus 37:17
Sage, Judean (Salvia judaica Boiss) (possibly)	Exodus 37:17
Scarlet Oak (Quercus sp.) Seaweed possibly marine plants algae or kelp (Laminariales or Fucates)	Leviticus 14:48 Jonah 2:5
Sedge (sp. of Cyperaceae)	Job 40:21 (NETS)
"Spices" (Astrangalus tragacantha)	2 Chronicles 9:1
Spikenard (Nardostachys jatamansi; Hebrew, nerd; Greek, nar?dos)	Song of Sol. 4:14
Stacte (Styrax officinalis) or Storax (Liquidambar orientalis)	Exodus 30:34, Hos.4:13
Star of Bethlehem (Ornithogalum narbonense)	2 Kings 6:25
Sweet Cane (Saccharum officinarum)	Jeremiah 6:20
Sweet Flag and Aromatic Cane (Acorus sp.) calamus (Acorus calamus)	Isaiah 43:23
Sycamine (Mulberry) (Morus sp.)	Luke 17:5
Tamarisk (Tamarix aphylla) (Hebrew, ’e?shel)	Genesis 21:33
Tares are speculated to denote Darnel (Lolium temulentum)	Matthew 13:24
Terebinth (Pistacia palaestina Boiss)	2 Samuel 18:9
Thistle, Golden	2 Chronicles 25:18
Thistle	Job 31:40
Thorns (Sacopoterium spinosum)	Jeremiah 4:3
Thyine Wood (Tetraclinis articulata)	Revelation 18:12
Timber	2 Kings 12:12
Tulip Sharon or Rose of Sharon (Gladiolus itakicus or G. atroviolaceus)	Song of Sol. 2:1
Tumbleweed (Gundelia tournefortii)	Psalm 83:13 Genesis 43:11
Wheat (Hebrew, chit·tah?; Greek, si?tos)	Ezra 7:22
Wheat, Egyptian (Triticum compositum)	Genesis 41:22, 23
Willow (Salix alba or others)	Job 40:22
Wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) Yeast or leaven (Saccharomyces cerivisae) *Tree of life (special eternal category for ability and existence), in the material garden of Eden (Genesis 2:9; 3:3 with fruit) and in the eternal heaven: Paradise (Revelation 2:7, 22:2, 14 with twelve fruits of one per month72 yet with no light from a sun or moon but light from God Revelation 21:2373).	Revelation 8:11 Exodus 12:15 etc.